Introduction

Forensic anthropology has typically focused on the recovery and examination of human remains. Along with search and recovery, this work entails determining whether the evidence recovered is in the form of a bone or tooth, identifying the species, estimating the time since death, taking into account factors like sex, ancestry, age at death, living stature, taphonomic history, and recognizing any other features. Dwight (1843–1911) was regarded by Stewart (1979a, 1979b) as an early father of American forensic anthropology in this sense. After earning his medical degree from Harvard in 1867, Dwight agreed to become an anatomy professor there. He was the first to put together skeletons after they had been dissected anatomically and use them to build research methods. His works as a result of that effort contributed to the establishment of the basic framework for the disciplines of skeleton biology and forensic anthropology (Ubelaker, 2018). The field of biological anthropology encompasses the following areas of study: human morphology and evolution, the morphological development of non-human primates, human variety in morphology and adaption to various settings, human genetics, and the biological underpinnings of human behavior The examination of extinct hominin and nonhuman primate communities is fundamental to comprehending the variety within and among human populations, the trajectory of human development, and the mechanisms that have engendered human evolution (Rissech, 2021).

Early research by physical child's age from the teeth eruption sequence and epiphyseal closure are still in use today. When it comes to skeletonized or partially skeletonized remains, severely burned bodies, and buried dead, physical anthropologists are essential personnel. When skeletal, quasi-skeletal, or burned remains are discovered on the surface an osteologist must be qualified to examine, record, retrieve, and otherwise take care of the remains (Cattaneo, 2006). An anthropologist's use of skeletal remains in forensics is crucial since it allows for the use of craniofacial superimposition, facial approximation, distinctive cranial evidence, frontal sinus variances, and postcranial remnants The primary tasks of a forensic anthropologist are to locate, retrieve, and identify human remains (Jayakrishnan et al., 2021)

The forensic anthropologist's goals are to: help locate and collect human remains; try to offer a post-mortem interval opinion; look for evidence of any foul play; and analyze the human remains. In order to ascertain the biological profile (anatomical parts that are present; age, sex, ancestry, height, etc.), they search for the morphological particularities of the individual, whether they are alive or dead, intact or fragmented. They also assist in the reconstruction of the facts using taphonomic principles and techniques, in order to respond to legal inquiries. The fields of forensic archaeology, forensic taphonomy, trauma, and DNA analysis are becoming more and more important. Additionally, analysis of human remains can be done remotely or directly on the bones using imaging. The current state of forensic anthropology includes a range of specialists in areas like age at death, trauma, taphonomy, histology, and craniofacial reconstruction (Rissech, 2021).

Among the identification disciplines, forensic anthropology is quite unique in that the methods employed are highly varied and contingent upon the material at hand (skeletal remains' completeness and condition, for example) and the kinds of inquiries that are sought. Because analyses are subjective and human variation is significant, many anthropological approaches are subjective. However, as was previously mentioned, subjectivity does not equate to unreliability. Due to the previously noted diversity, there must also be significant differences in the experimental and statistical methods used to assess the validity of anthropological procedures. Instead of producing a binary answer, validation studies in anthropology will provide an accuracy rate and precision level that can be utilized to determine the reliability of the experiment (Christensen and Crowder, 2009). In the past 20 years, forensic anthropology has seen four major advancements in addition to these two outside developments are the widespread use of enhanced quantitative techniques derived from contemporary comparative samples, the application of forensic archaeological recovery techniques that reinstate the focus on forensic context, the creation of empirically grounded event reconstructions derived from forensic taphonomy and forensic skeletal trauma analysis. Specifically, forensic archaeology had to be included as a crucial new component of the conceptual framework of forensic anthropology due to the depth and methodological principles established within forensic taphonomy, which allowed for the complete consolidation of forensic skeletal trauma analysis (Dirkmaat et al., 2008).

One of the forensic sciences' areas with the quickest growth has been anthropology. Determining sex and estimating stature are the least researched areas in forensic anthropology. Regression statistics is the most widely used and straightforward method for estimating stature among other methods. By working with radiologists, several anthropologists are trying to determine body length using radiographs. The accuracy of these estimates has reportedly been reported to be on par with those based on long bones, but caution must be exercised to ensure that the X-ray quality is sufficient for precise measurement taking and that the magnification factor is computed correctly. For a long time, sexual dimorphism has piqued attention. The societal ramifications of gender disparities in size have been examined using these data. The cranium, which has the widest variety and greatest representation of size and morphology, and the pelvis, where reproductive differences are most noticeable, have been the main targets of sex determination procedures. Mostly the skeleton long bone are used for the estimation of sex difference. Since discriminant function analysis is the most popular statistical approach for determining sex, many anthropologists and other academics have been able to properly assess their anthropometric data (İşcan, 2005). Humans are a diverse species in terms of appearance. Genetic influences and environmental elements like location and climate combine to produce this diversity. As a result, people everywhere have distinct appearances. Racial identity is frequently complicated because, in addition to the considerable genetic overlap between members of different racial groups and the extremely large range of diversity within each racial group, many people share genes with multiple racial groups. Additionally, antemortem and postmortem records may differ because the majority of government documents pertaining to an individual's race are insufficient (Kahana and Hiss, 2009).

The human species has traditionally been divided into three "races": Negroid, Mongoloid, and Caucasoid. But human variance is not reflected in this classification. Furthermore, Relethford has stressed how vague the term "race". Teeth can also reveal a person's sex. Forensic professionals face a significant challenge when determining a person's sex from skeletal remains, particularly in cases where the body is only partially retrieved. By utilizing the skull and teeth, forensic dentists can help other specialists identify the gender of the remains. Male and female sexes differ in a number of tooth characteristics, including morphology, crown size, and root lengths. There are variations in the designs of the skull as well. These are going to assist a forensic odontologist in determining the sex. The precise identification of the remains' sex will be made possible by recent advancements like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. An essential aid in the identification process is estimating the victim's age at death and determining the gender of the remains. There are several ways to express a person's age, including their chronological age, anatomical age, dental age, sexual age, and mental age. Age estimation is important in medicine, law, anthropology, and many other areas. These include criminal cases, court penalties, marriage, employment, kidnapping, rape, and many more (Jayakrishnan et al., 2021). Other than the previous study in the 21st century the anthropologist use their Expertise in individualisation in the finding the missing person or solve the cases over the DNA fingerprinting as it was expensive technique. Many personal characteristics, including age, sex, body size, and body morphology, are said to be able to jumpstart an investigation more successfully, making anthropological analysis a faster method of finding a missing individual. As long as a trustworthy sample is available, DNA extraction can happen later. Studies on the time since death of several biological remains, such as bones, have been conducted. Swift and colleagues' current study aims to estimate the postmortem interval from the skeletal remains to be 15±77 years. They observe a correlation between radioactivity and the amount of time elapsed since death. Facial tissue depth is one of the areas that has been studied in many populations. Facial tissue depth is one of the areas that has been studied in many populations. There are several methods for making a craniofacial identification, but the most common ones involve layering clay over a skull, superimposing a picture of a skull onto an image, and comparing two faces in a picture or video. Little is known about the aging process of the human face and the relationship between the face and the skull because research in these areas is still in its infancy. Facial reconstruction term, which can be employed manually or with computer software to activate people's memories and raise suspicions about their identities (İşcan, 2001).

One crucial forensic technology that can aid in face recognition of the skull and ultimately result in a person's positive identification is forensic facial reconstruction. Scientific techniques and creative ability are combined in forensic facial reconstruction. It can be applied to rebuild the soft tissues on the skull to create an image of a person for the purpose of identifying and recognizing them. Three-dimensional (3D) and two-dimensional (2D) methods are the two technique for the face reconstruction (Gupta et al., 2015). Anthropometric locations were charted onto a picture of the skull. Investigators used superimposition techniques to compare specific landmarks on the passport photo and the skull shot. Due to the exact matching of the designated locations on the two images, the individual could be identified, which sparked an inquiry that resulted in the murderer's conviction. An objective way to compare the three-dimensional facial reconstruction with the person in a particular shot is to employ video superimposition. With this technique, multiple video cameras are focused on various images, which can then be combined and shown on a computer screen. Using this

kind of superimposition in 1982, Koelmeyer was able to positively identify the remains of a missing person, which helped bring his murderer to justice. Nowadays, a variety of methods are employed to create two-dimensional facial reconstructions. One approach made use of the notion that a face's unique identity is directly related to the size, location, and proportion of its characteristics in relation to each other. Given that the skull determines the relative placements of facial features, a person's face may be created by superimposing a "average" face onto the murderer's skull (Omstead, 2002).

Discussion

A future objective for the anthropological community should be to form dedicated working groups aimed at coordinating research efforts. These groups would focus on refining and validating traditional methods of sexing, aging, and size estimation across diverse populations. Such collaborative efforts would facilitate the amalgamation of research findings, allowing for the publication of results in a uniform and cohesive manner. This standardization would enhance the scientific rigor of forensic anthropology, leading to more reliable and universally applicable methods. By combining data from different populations, researchers can develop more accurate models that account for population-specific variations, thereby improving the precision of forensic analyses.

Conclusion

In conclusion, forensic anthropologists are indispensable in the investigation of crime scenes involving skeletal remains. To further advance the field, there is a critical need for coordinated research efforts that standardize traditional methods of determining sex, age, and size estimation. The establishment of working groups dedicated to this cause will enable the integration of diverse research findings, ultimately contributing to the publication of comprehensive and standardized guidelines that benefit the global forensic community