Introduction

The field of forensic identification has seen remarkable advancements with the evolution of skull superimposition techniques. This method, which involves overlaying an image of a skull onto a facial photograph to establish identity, has transitioned from traditional manual processes to sophisticated digital methods. The driving force behind this evolution includes the adoption of technologies such as 3D imaging, computer-assisted superimposition, and machine learning algorithms. Initially, skull superimposition relied on manual, labour-intensive techniques that heavily depended on expert judgment. In the late 20th century, the introduction of video superimposition, which used rotatable stands and cameras to blend images, marked a significant innovation but lacked precision and repeatability. However, recent technological advancements have transformed the practice, greatly enhancing accuracy and efficiency. Computer-assisted superimposition now allows for the digitization of skull and facial images, enabling software to assist in precise anatomical comparisons and improving the reliability of identifications. Tools like Photoshop, alongside specialized forensic software, have made the process more accessible and user-friendly. The impact of 3D imaging techniques on forensic identification has been profound. High-resolution 3D models of skulls can now be superimposed onto digital facial images, offering a more accurate and comprehensive analysis. These 3D models, viewable from multiple angles, provide a level of detail that 2D methods could not achieve. Machine learning and artificial intelligence have further advanced the field by automating key aspects of the superimposition process, such as landmark detection and image alignment, reducing manual effort and minimizing errors. This integration of technology not only streamlines the process but also enhances the reliability of identifications. The use of machine learning in forensic anthropology, for instance, has improved the accuracy of skull-photo superimposition, while 3D printing technology now allows for the creation of physical skull models for further analysis. These advancements underscore the ongoing evolution of skull superimposition techniques, driven by technological innovation and the need for precise forensic identification methods.